城市规划专业英语翻译273—278页

Further Architecture

Reading (1): Gothic

walls, and become a stone skeleton comprising clustered, pointed ribbed vaults and flying buttress. A Gothic cathedral or abbey was, prior to the 20th century, generally the landmark building in its town, rising high above all the domestic structures and often surmounted by one or more towers and pinnacles and perhaps tall spires.

Plan

Gothic architecture is a style of architecture which flourished during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture. Originating in 12th-century France and lasting into the 16th century, Gothic architecture was known during the period as “the French Style”, with the term Gothic first appearing during the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying butting. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the great cathedrals, and parish churches of Europe. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, universities, and to a less prominent extent, private dwelling.

It is in the great churches and cathedrals in a number of civic building that the Gothic style was expressed most powerfully, its characteristics lending themselves to appeal to the emotion. A great number of ecclesiastical building remain from this period, of which even the smallest are often structures of architectural distinction while many of the large churches are considered priceless works of art and are listed with UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. For this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches.

Characteristics of Gothic churches and cathedrals

In Gothic architecture, a unique combination of existing technologies established the emergence of a new building style. Those technologies were the ogival or pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the flying buttress. The Gothic style, when applied to an ecclesiastical building, emphasizes verticality and light. This appearance was achieved by the development of certain architectural features, which together provided an engineering solution. The structural parts of the building ceased to be its solid

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Most Gothic churches, unless they are entitled chapels, are of the Latin cross (or “cruciform”) plan, with a long nave making the body of the church, chancel or presbytery. There are several regional variations on this plan.

The nave is generally flanked on either side by aisles, usually singly, but sometimes double. The nave is generally considerably taller than the aisles, having clerestory window which light the central space. Gothic churches of the Germanic tradition, like St. Stephen of Vienna, often have nave and aisles of similar height. In the South of France there is often a single wide nave and no aisles, as at Sainte-Marie in Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges.

In some churches with double aisles, like Notre Dame, Paris, the transept does not project beyond the aisles. In English cathedrals transepts tend to project boldly and there may be two of them, as at Salisbury Cathedral, though this is not the case with lesser churches.

The eastern arm shows considerable diversity. In England it is generally long and may have two distinct section, both choir and presbytery. It is often square ended or has a projecting Lady Chapel, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. In France the eastern end is often polygonal and surrounded by a walkway called an ambulatory and sometimes a ring of chapels called a“chevet”. While German churches are often similar to those of France, in Italy, the eastern projection beyond the transept is usually just a shallow apsidal chapel containing the sanctuary, as at Florence Cathedral.

The pointed arch

One of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture is the pointed or ogival arch. The Gothic vault, unlike the semi-circular vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, can be used to roof rectangular and irregularly shaped plans such as trapezoids. The other structural advantage is that the pointed arch channels the weight onto the bearing piers or columns at a steep angle. This enabled architects to raise vaults much higher than was possible in Romanesque architecture.

While, structurally, use of the pointed arch gave a greater flexibility to architectural form, it also gave Gothic architecture a very different visual character to Romanesque, the verticality suggesting an aspiration to Heaven.

In Gothic Architecture the pointed arch is used in every location where a vaulted shape is called for, both structural and decorative. Gothic opening such as doorways, window, arcades and galleries has pointed arches. Gothic vaulting above spaces both large and small is usually supported by richly moulded ribs.

Rows of pointed arches delicate shafts form a typical wall decoration known as blind arcading. Niches with pointed arches and containing statuary are a major external feature. The pointed arch lent itself to elaborate intersecting shapes which developed within window spaces into complex Gothic tracery forming the structural support of the large windows that are characteristic of the style.

Vertical emphasis

The pointed arch lends itself to a suggestion of height. This appearance is characteristically further enhanced by both the architectural features and the decoration of the building.

On the exterior, the verticality is emphasized in a major way by the towers and spires and in a lesser way by strongly projecting vertical buttresses, by narrow half-columns called attached shafts which

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often pass through several storeys of the building, by long narrow window, vertical mouldings around doors and figurative sculpture which emphasizes the vertical and is often attenuated. The roofline, gable ends, buttresses and other parts of building are often terminated by small pinnacles, Milan Cathedral being an extreme example in the use of this form of decoration.

On the interior of building attached shafts often sweep unbroken from floor to ceiling and meet the ribs of the vault, like a tall tree spreading into branches. The vertical are generally repeated in France, and in the perpendicular period of English Gothic architecture, the treatment of vertical element in gallery and window tracery creates a strongly unifying feature that counteracts the horizontal divisions of the interior structure.

Flying Buttress

A flying buttress, or arc-boutant, is a specific type of buttress. They are used to transmit the horizontal thrust of a vault across an intervening space（which might be an aisle, chapel or cloister）, to a buttress outside the building. The employment of the flying buttress means that the load bearing walls can contain cut- outs, such as for large window, which would otherwise weaken them. Flying buttresses are often found in Gothic architecture. The purpose of a buttress is to provide horizontal strength to a wall. The majority of the load is carried by the upper part of the buttress, so making the buttress as a semi-arch provides almost the same load bearing capability, yet in a much lighter and cheaper structure. As a result, the buttress seemingly flies through the air, rather than resting on the ground and hence is known as a flying buttress.

Rose Window

A Rose window （or Catherine window）is often used as a generic term applied to a circular window, but is especially used for those found in churches of the Gothic architectural style and being divided into segments by stone mullions and tracery.

Rose windows are particularly characteristic of Gothic architecture and may be seen in all the major Gothic Cathedral of Northern France. Their origins are much earlier and rose windows may be seen in various forms throughout the Medieval period. Their popularity was revived, with other medieval features, during the Gothic revival of the 19th century so that they are seen in Christian churches all over the world.

Notre Dame de Paris

Notre Dame de Paris is widely considered one of the finest examples of French Gothic architecture in the world. The name Notre Dame means “Our Lady” in French. Notre Dame de Paris was one of the first Gothic cathedrals, and its construction spanned the Gothic period.

Notre Dame de Paris was among the first building in world to use the flying buttress (arched exterior supports). The building was not originally designed to include the flying buttress around the choir and nave. After the construction began and the thinner walls (popularized in the Gothic style) grew ever higher, stress fractures began to occur as the walls pushed outward. In response, the cathedral's architects built supports around the outside walls, and later addition continued as such.

Further

of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, leading directly to the architecture of the Ottoman Empire.

As early as the building of Constantine’s churches in Palestine there were two chief types of plan in use: the basilican, or axial type, and the circular, or central type. Those of the latter type we must suppose were nearly always vaulted, for a central dome. The central space was something surrounded by a very thick wall, in which deep recesses, to the interior, were formed; or by a vaulted aisle; or annexes were thrown out from the central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions helped to counterpoise the central vault. The most famous church of this type was that of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople. Vaults appear to have been early applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, at Hagia Irene, Constantinople (6th century), the long body of the church is covered by two domes. At St Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon. Finally, at Hagia Sophia (6th century) a combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft (30 m) square is increased to 200 ft (60 m) in length by adding two hemicycles to the east and the west; these are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, and two other, one on either side of a straight extension, to the west. This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surface. Above the conchs of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which cover the hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central square. On the two sides, to the north and south of the dome, it is supported by vaulted aisles in two storeys which bring the exterior form to a general square.

At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest. After the 6th century there were no

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Reading (2):

Byzantine Architecture

Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire. The empire gradually emerged as a distinct artistic and cultural entity from what is today referred to as the Rome Empire after AD 330, when the Roman Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire east from Rome to Byzantium. Byzantium, “New Rome”, was later renamed Constantinople and is now called Istanbul. The empire ended for more than a millennium, dramatically influencing Medieval and Renaissance era architecture in Europe and, following the capture

churches built which in any way competed in scale with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to approximate to one type. The central area covered by the dome was included in a considerably larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east, west, north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort of nave and transepts. Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion. If we draw a square and divide each side into three so that the middle parts are greater than the others, and then divide the area into nine from these points, we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the front. Still in front put a square court. The court is the atrium and usually has a fountain in the middle under a canopy resting on pillars. The entrance porch is the narthex. Directly under the center of the dome is the ambo, from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers. Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which divided off the bema, where the altar was situated, from the body of the church; The ambo and bema were connected by the solea, a raised walkway enclosed by a railing or low wall.

The continuous influence from the East was strangely shown in the fashion of decorating external brick walls of churches built about the 12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into forms were set up so as to make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear were imitated from Cufic writing. This fashion was associated with the disposition of the exterior brick and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig-zags, key-patterns, etc.; and, as similar decoration is found in many Persian buildings, it is probable that this custom also was derived from the East.

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深入阅读（1）：哥特式建筑

哥特式建筑是在中世纪的全盛期和晚期蓬勃发展的

一种建筑风格，。它从罗马式建筑演变，继之以文艺复兴时期建筑。

哥特式建筑发起于 12 世纪法国并且持续入 16 世纪，在这期间哥特式第一次出现的尖拱、肋架拱顶和飞拱并作为\"法国样式\"被人们所知道。

哥特式建筑是欧洲许多大教堂和教区教堂最为人熟知的体系结构。它也是许多城堡、 宫殿、 市政厅、 大学、 以及一定程度上不那么突出的私有住宅的体系结构。

在若干城市房屋中，许多大教堂是哥特式风格最有力的表达，它们的特点是借助于它们自己来呼吁感情。一大批宗教建筑在这一时期被保持，甚至最小的建筑特色往往是结构建筑，然而大教会的很多被认为是无价的艺术作品，并列出与联合国教育科学文化组织一样作为世界文化遗产。为此哥特式建筑的研究是很大程度上的大教堂和教会的研究。

典型的哥特式教堂和大教堂 在哥特式建筑中，现有技术的独特组合建立出现了一个新的建筑样式。这些技术是尖拱或哥特式拱、 肋架拱顶和飞拱。哥特式风格在应用于宗教建筑时强调垂直度和光影。由某些建筑的特色，在一起提供了一个工程解决方案的发展取得了此外观。建筑物结构部件的不再是它坚实的墙壁，而成为一个群集的石骨架，尖肋架拱顶和飞拱。

在 20 世纪之前，哥特式大教堂或修道院在其所在的镇一般是具有里程碑意义的建筑，高于一切的本土结构，并且经常建造由一个或多个塔和尖顶和或许高耸尖塔。

平面图

大多数哥特式教堂，除非它们是已被命名的小教堂，否则就是拉丁十字 （或\"十字形\"） 平面图，用一个长长的中殿作为教堂，圣坛或者内室。在这一平面图中也有几个地区差别。

教堂中殿的旁边一般通常是单独的侧廊，但有时两边都会有走道。中殿一般比侧廊颇高，有高侧窗窗口照亮空间。哥特式教堂是德国的传统，像维也纳的圣史蒂芬大教堂，往往有教堂中殿和同样高度的过道。在法国南部的往往是单个宽教堂中殿并且无走道，比如在圣-贝尔堂-德-卡门热的圣 · 玛丽大教堂。

在一些像巴黎圣母院一样有双侧廊的教堂，，十字型翼部不会比侧廊更突出。在英国一些大教堂的十字型翼部倾向于大胆地设计，可能有两个，如在索尔兹伯里大教堂，虽然这不是较小的教堂的情况。东部的建筑却显示出了相当大的差异。在英国教堂的十字型翼部一般较长，并且可能有两个不同部分，唱诗班的席位和内室。十字型翼部末

端常常是广场或是一个突出来供奉圣母玛利亚的圣母堂。在法国东部它的末端常常是多边形的被走道环绕的回廊，有时还是被称为\"伸出地礼堂\"一圈小礼拜堂。虽然德国教堂在这些方面经常和法国的相似，意大利，在东部的凸出物除了十字型翼部之外通常是一个浅的半圆形室耶路撒冷的神殿，比如佛罗伦萨大教堂。

尖拱

哥特式建筑的特点之一是尖形的或交错骨形的拱。哥特式拱顶与罗马半圆形穹顶和罗马式建筑不同，它可以用于矩形的屋顶和像梯形一样具有不规则形状的平面图。其他的结构的优点是尖拱通道是由支柱或者圆柱承重。这使建筑师能将穹顶提高到比罗马式建筑高得多的高度。

在结构上，使用的尖拱建筑形式不仅有更大的灵活性，而且它相比于罗马式也给了哥特式建筑非常不同的视觉特征，垂直度暗示对天堂的渴望。在哥特式建筑中尖拱用在每个要求穹状的位置，包括结构和装饰。哥特式开放如门口、 窗口、 拱廊及画廊都用的是拱门。哥特式拱形圆顶包括各种大小空间通常完全的由模具的肋骨支撑。

假拱廊是一种典型的墙装饰，这种装饰是一行行带有精致杆状物的尖拱。带有的尖拱和所包含的雕像示壁龛一个主要的外部特征。尖拱互相交叉形成复杂精美的形状，并发展为容纳复杂的哥特式花窗的窗户空间，形成支撑大窗户的结构，并在窗口中的空格内发展为复杂的哥特式花窗形成的结构支撑的大窗户，这些都成了哥特式特有的风格。

垂直的重点

尖拱根据自身结构确定高度。这一点的出现对于建筑物的建筑特色和建筑物的装饰是典型地进一步增强。

在外部，垂直度是通过强烈投影垂直拱，狭窄的半身柱被称为附加的轴，这些轴往往经过几层楼，由长狭窄的窗口，门周围的垂直线条和比喻雕塑，强调垂直和经常变细强调由塔和尖顶的主要方式和以较低的方式。车顶、 山墙、 拱和建筑的其他组成部分往往由小尖顶终止，米兰大教堂在使用这种形式的装饰时就是一个极端的例子。

在建筑的内部，附有轴往往不间断的从地板到天花板连绵一片，并且能看到穹的肋骨，像一棵大树蔓延的树枝。高耸一般重复出现在法国，和在高耸的英式哥特式建筑，垂直元素在画廊中的处理和窗口窗饰创建了一个强烈统一的功能，抵消内部结构的横向。

飞拱

飞拱或飞扶壁，是支柱的特定类型。它们用于传送介于穹顶中间空间（这可能是过道、 教堂或回廊）的水平推力到建筑外部的扶墙上。飞拱的使用是指承重墙可以被取代，如对于大型窗口需要用飞拱，否则会缩小窗口。飞拱常常在哥特式建筑中被发现。

扶墙的目的是增加墙的横向强度。扶墙支撑大部分来

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自上部的载荷，所以使扶墙作为一个半拱提供几乎相同的

承载能力，而且也更轻和更廉价的结构。结果，扶墙看似飞在空中，而不是静止在地面，因此被称为飞拱。

圆花窗

圆花窗 （或凯瑟琳窗） 常用的作为一个通用术语，适用于圆形窗口，特别是用于那些在哥特式建筑风格的教堂和由石窗棂和窗饰的分成部分。

圆花窗是哥特式建筑中典型的特点，可能在所有法国北部主要的哥特式大教堂里都能看见。他们的起源更早，在整个中世纪期间可能会看到圆花窗的各种形式。在 19 世纪的哥特式复兴期间，他们带着其他中世纪的功能的大众化复兴了，他们可以看到在世界各地的教教堂。

巴黎圣母院

巴黎圣母院被广泛认为是法国哥特式建筑在世界上最好的例子。圣母院的名称在法语中是\"圣母\"的意思。巴黎圣母院是最开始建造的的哥特式大教堂之一，其建设时间跨越哥特式期间。

巴黎圣母院是在世界上最早使用飞拱（拱形外部支持）的建筑之一。这个建筑最初设计是不包括飞拱周围的唱诗班席位和教堂中殿的。建造开始后和薄墙 (通俗化在哥特式风格) 增长过高后，作为承重外推力的墙壁开始发生应力性骨折。为了解决这个问题，大教堂的建筑师建造了周围的外承重墙，后来继续添加了类似的结构。

深入阅读（2）：拜占庭建筑

拜占庭式建筑是拜占庭帝国的体系结构。帝国逐渐形

成一个独特的艺术和文化实体，从现今称为罗马帝国时期到当罗马皇帝君士坦丁将东罗马帝国的首都从罗马迁到拜占庭的公元330。拜占庭，\"新罗马\"，后来改名为君士坦丁堡，现在被称为伊斯坦布尔。帝国结束逾千年，对欧洲中世纪和文艺复兴时代建筑有巨大的影响，直接导致奥斯曼帝国的体系结构产生，在 1453 年被鄂图曼土耳其灭亡，。

早在巴勒斯坦建设的君士坦丁式教堂，使用了两种主要类型的平面图： 长方形或轴类型和圆形或类型。我们一般认为后者类型是具有圆顶穹顶。空间是包围很厚的墙，到室内被形成了深深的壁龛；或由拱形通道 ；或附件中一种能形成一个十字架，这些附加的东西能帮助平衡穹顶。这种类型的最著名的教堂是君士坦丁堡的圣彼得大教堂。穹顶似乎在早期的长方形教堂平面图中就得到应用，例如，在君士坦丁堡(6 世纪)的圣索非亚大教堂，教堂的长身体被两个圆顶覆盖。

在圣塞吉阿斯、君士坦丁堡、圣维塔莱、拉文纳的型教堂，中间是巨大的圆形屋顶，旁边有做成半圆形穹

窿附带着八边形扩充空间。最后，在圣索菲亚大教堂 (6 世纪) 的所做的结合，也许人为的最出色的规划。长100 英尺 (30 m) 的广场空间通过将两个半圆形的房间添加到东部和西部增加到长 200 英尺 (60 米);这些又是通过推送三个次要的拱点 向东和向两个其他方向，这两个方向一个在两边的一个直的扩展，一个向西扩展。这从未间断的地段，约 260 英尺 （80 米） 长，其中更大的部分是超过 100 英尺 （30 米） 宽，其表面完全被一个圆式结构的系统覆盖。以上耳壳的小拱点上升成两个大的半穹顶，被半圆形覆盖，这些结构突然出现在巨大圆顶在广场之间。在教堂两侧，北部和南部的圆顶被两层的拱形的侧廊支撑，给一个一般的广场带来一种外部形式。

在圣使徒 (6 世纪) 五个圆顶被应用到一个十字形的平面图；圆顶是最高的。过了第 6 世纪后没有像查士丁尼的伟大作品般的教堂建造，而且平面图或多或少倾向于近似于一种类型。圆顶覆盖的区域包含着一个相当大的正方形，其中四个分区，向东、 西、 北和南，增盖了比四个角更高的拱形圆顶和屋顶体系，以这种方式形成的教堂中殿和十字型翼部。空间有时是广场，有时是八角形，或至少有八根柱子支撑穹顶而不是四根，教堂中殿和十字型翼部是按比例是有限的。

如果我们画一个正方形，将每边分为三份，中间部分就会比其他部分更大，然后从这些点将区域划分为九份，我们近似不一的在这次划分中典型的平面图设置。从三个分区的东区空缺添加三个拱点，相反的在西侧对面放一个狭窄入口的门廊。仍然在前面放一个方形的。是中庭，通常在支起的休息棚中间有一个喷泉。入口门廊是教堂前厅。圆屋顶的中心下是祷告圣经的讲道台，比讲道台低一个台阶的是的唱诗班歌手站的地方。对面的广场东部边上有分隔圣坛的遮蔽物，教堂本身的位置发生改变；讲道台和圣坛连接了在一起，高架通道被栏杆或矮墙围住。

从东部的连续影响奇怪地显示出了照12世纪模仿的教堂建筑砖墙上的表面装饰，其中的砖粗略地被雕刻成型，形成波段般的装饰，很明显是模仿古阿拉伯字母表的写法。这种风格通常同安排在外部的砖和石制品联系在一起，一般有多样的式样，之字形，回纹饰，等等；因为相似的装饰在许多波斯建筑中发现，这种风惯例同样可能起源于东方。

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