英语演讲选择进修课期末深刻复习最后大归纳

chapter 1ABC

Why Study Public Speaking

❖ Increase personal and social abilities ❖ Enhance your academic and career skills ❖ Refine your general communication abilities ❖ Increase your public speaking abilities ❖ ….

Increase Personal and Social Abilities

❖ self-awareness ❖ self-confidence

❖ dealing with the fear of communicating Public Speaking VS Conversation

❖ Purpose: both communicate with a certain purpose

❖ Audience: a public speech is usually directed at more listeners. ❖ Feedback: public speaking is relatively uninterrupted discourse.

❖ Delivery: public speaking requires intensified volume of voice and bodily

action.

❖ Materials and organization: public speeches are mostly prepared ones.

Impromptu speeches are rare.

* *

The essentials of a speech

❖ Objective: why am I making this speech? ❖ Audience:whom am I making this speech to? ❖ Place:where ❖ Time and length

❖ Method of delivery:how ❖ Content:what ❖ Notes

❖ Rehearsal: identify weakness, practice difficult pronunciations

Dealing with nervousness

❖ Acquire speaking experience ❖ Prepare, prepare, prepare ❖ Think positively

❖ Use the power of visualization

❖ Know that most nervousness is Not visible ❖ Don’t expect perfection

Acquire Speaking Experience

❖ Enrolled in a public speaking course ❖ Stage fright: fear of the unknown

❖ Learning to give a speech is not much different from learning any other

* *

skill---it proceeds by trial and error. The purpose of your speech class is to shorten the process, to minimize the errors, to give you a nonthreatening arena---a sort of laboratory--- in which to undertake the “trial”

Think positively

Confidence is mostly the well-known power of positive thinking. Negative Thought & Positive Thought

❖ I wish I didn’t have to give this speech.

This speech is a chance for me to share my ideas and gain experience as a speaker.

❖ I am not a great public speaker.

No one is perfect, but I am getting better with each speech I give. Terms

❖ Positive nervousness---controlled nervousness that helps energize a

speaker for her or his presentation.

❖ Visualization---mental imaging in which a speaker vividly pictures herself or

himself giving a successful presentation.

❖ Creat a vivid mental blurprint in which you see yourself succeeding in your

speech

Other tips for dealing with nervousness

* *

❖ Be at your best physically and mentally. A good night’s sleep will serve you

better.

❖ As you are waiting to speak, quietly tighten and relax your leg muscles, or

squeeze your hands together and then release them. Such actions help reduce tension by providing an outlet for your extra adrenaline.

❖ Take a couple slow, deep breaths before you start to speak. Most people

take short and shallow breaths, which only reinforces their anxiety. Deep breathing breaks this cycle of tension and help calm your nerves.

❖ Work especially hard on your introduction. Research has shown that a

speaker’s anxiety level begins to drop significantly after the first 30 seconds of a presentation

❖ Make eye contact with members of your audience. Remember that they are

individual people, not a blur of faces. And they are your friends.

❖ Concentrate on communicating with your audience rather than on worrying

about your stage fright. If you get caught up in your speech, your audience will too.

❖ Use visual aids. They create interest, draw attention away from you, and

make you feel less self-conscious.

* *

chapter 2 topic

Selecting a topic

 Speeches outside the classroom

the occasion, the audience, the speaker’s qualifications

 Speeches in the public speaking class no designated topic

 What is a suitable speech topic?

 Worthwhile  Appropriate  Limited in scope

Suitable topic

 Worthwhile

significant implications for the audience

 Appropriate

know a lot, like to learn more

* *

 Limited in scope

dividing the topic into several significant parts.

 General purpose: the broad goal 总体目标

 To inform: convey information

enhance the knowledge and understanding

 To persuade: advocate or partisan

Change or structure the attitudes or actions Difference: explain or exhort

 Specific purpose 具体目标 to inform my audience about… to persuade my audience to … Explain ←→ exhort

Specific Purpose

 Specific purpose: ( single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to accomplish in his or her speech.). 简单的肯定句  Topic: Emergencies  General purpose: To inform  Specific purpose: To inform my audience of the major steps in responding to an emergency * *

Tips for formulating the specific purpose statement

Tip 1: Write the purpose statement as a full infinitive phrase(完整的短语）, not as a fragment（片段） Tip 2

Express your purpose as a statement, not as a question 陈述句 Tip 3 Avoid figurative language比喻语言

Tip 4 Limit your purpose statement to one distinct idea, or one main point Tip 5

Make sure your specific purpose is not too vague or general

Phrasing the central idea

(Also called thesis statement, subject sentence, major thought )

What is the central idea?

Guidelines for the central idea

What is the central idea?

 A one-sentence statement that sums up the major ideas of a speech. It is

* *

what you want the audience to absorb from your speech.  In persuasive speeches

arguable, debatable, take your stance

 In informative speeches relatively neutral and objective

 The specific purpose of a speech is what you hope to accomplish.  The central idea is a concise statement of what you expect to say. 

Guidelines for the central idea

 The central idea

1. Should be expressed in a full sentence 2.should not be in the form of a question. 3. should avoid figurative language 4. should not be vague or overly general

Summary

 Selecting a topic

 Determining your general purpose  Determining your specific purpose  Phrasing your central idea

* *

Four brainstorming procedures

 Make a quick inventory of your hobbies, interests, skills, experiences, beliefs,

and so forth.

 Use the technique of clustering and write down on a sheet of paper the first

topics that come to mind in several categories.  Look through a reference work for ideas

 Use a World Wide Web subject directory such as Yahoo to help you scan

possible topic.

* *

* *

chapter 3 Analysis

Analyzing the audience

1. Audience-centeredness 以听众为中心 2. The psychology of audience 听众的心理 3. Demographic audience analysis 听众分析统计 4. Situational audience analysis 听众分析的具体情形 5. Adapting to the audience 适应听众

1. Audience-centeredness

▪ Audience-centeredness: keeping the audience foremost in mind at every

step of speech preparation and presentation.

Questions to be asked when preparing

▪ To whom am I speaking?

▪ What do I want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech? ▪ What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to

accomplish that aim?(how)

2. The psychology of audiences

▪ Question: what do you do when you listen to a speech? * *

▪ two messages: speaker, filter, listener

▪ people hear what they want to hear and disregard the rest.

▪ Question: what do people want to hear? ▪ Meaningful ▪ Egocentrism: The tendency of people to be concerned above all with their

own values, beliefs, and well-being.

▪ Listeners typically approach speeches with one question uppermost in mind:

“Why is this important to me?”

What do these psychological principles mean to you as a speaker?

▪ Listeners: what they already know

▪ Speakers: relate the message to

Two steps of demographic audience analysis

⑴identifying the general demographic features of your audience

⑵ assessing the importance of those features to a particular speaking situation

* *

Demographic Audience Analysis

▪ Age ▪ Gender

▪ Sexual orientation

▪ Racial, ethnic and cultural background ▪ Religion

4. Situational audience analysis:

▪ Situational factors Size

Physical setting

Disposition toward the topic Disposition toward the speaker

Disposition toward the topic

▪ Interest ▪ Knowledge ▪ Attitude

* *

Disposition toward the speaker

▪ keep in mind that your listeners will always have some set of attitudes

toward you as a speaker.

▪ Estimating what those attitudes are and how they will affect your speech is a

crucial part of situational audience analysis.

Summary

▪ audience-centered. They know that the aim of speechmaking is to gain a

desired response from listeners. When working on your speeches, keep three questions in mind:

(1)To whom am I speaking?

(2)What do I want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech?

(3)What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish that aim?

▪ Psychology of audience.

People hear what they want to hear. Egocentric

Why is this important to me?

* *

chapter4 ntroduction

1. Getting attention and interest (1)Relate the topic to the audience (2)State the importance of your topic (3)Startle the audience

(4)Arouse the curiosity of the audience (5)Question the audience (6)Begin with a quotation (7)Tell a story

2. Reveal the topic 3. Establish credibility

▪ Credibility: the audience’s perception of whether a speaker is qualified to

speak on a given topic.

Your credibility need not be based on firsthand knowledge and experience. It can come from reading, from classes, from interviews, from friends.

4 Preview the body of the speech

* *

▪ Preview statement 预先叙说

▪ A statement in the introduction of a speech that identifies the main points

to be discussed in the body of the speech.

Tips for preparing the introduction

1. Keep the introduction relatively brief. Under normal circumstances it should

not constitute more than 10 to 20 percent of your speech.

2. Be on the lookout for possible introductory materials as you do your research. File them with your notes, so they will be handy when you are ready for them.

3. Be creative in devising your introduction. Experiment with two or three different openings and choose the one that seems most likely to get the audience interested in your speech.

4. Don’t worry about the exact wording of your introduction until you have finished preparing the body of the speech. After you have determined your main points, it will be much easier to make final decisions about how to begin the speech.

5. Work out your introduction in detail. Some teachers recommend that you write it out word for word; others prefer that you outline it. Whichever method you use, practice the introduction over and over until you can deliver it smoothly from a minimum of notes and with strong eye contact. This will get your speech off to a good start and give you a big boost of confidence.

* *

Some common faults of introductions

▪▪▪▪▪

Don’t apologize.

Don’t pretend

Don’t make hollow promises

Don’t rely on gimmicks

Don’t preface your introduction

* *

chapter 5 conclusion

To let the audience know you are ending the speech

• “In conclusion” • “One last thought”

* *

• “In closing”

• “My purpose has been” • “Let me end by saying”

Reinforce the central idea 1. Summarize your speech 2. End with a quotation 3. Make a dramatic statement 4. Refer to the introduction 5. Motivate

Tips for preparing the conclusion

1. As with the introduction, keep an aye out for possible concluding materials as you research and develop the speech.

2. Conclude with a bang, not a whimper. Be creative in devising a conclusion that hits the hearts and minds of your audience. Work on several possible endings, and select the one that seems likely to have the greatest impact.

3. Do not be long-winded. The conclusion will normally make up no more than

about 5 to 10 percent of your speech. Nothing aggravates audiences more than a speaker who says, “In conclusion” and keeps on talking.

 chapter

6 language_delivery

 Language is important  Meaning of words

 Using language accurately

* *

-7

* *

 Using language clearly  Using language vividly  Using language appropriately  A note on inclusive language

Using language clearly 1. Use familiar words 2. Choose concrete words 3. Eliminate clutter

2. Choose concrete words

 Concrete words: words that refer to tangible objects  Abstract words: words that refer to ideas or concepts

 Keep this in mind: few words are completely abstract or concrete.

Abstractness and concreteness are relative.

Two main ways to use moving and vivid language: imagery and rhythm

1. Imagery: (意象）

The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions or

* *

ideas.

It is a word picture that gets you totally involved.

Three ways to generate imagery: A. Concrete words B. Simile（明喻）

An explicit comparison introduced with the word “like” or “as” between things that are essentially different yet have something in common. Example:

C. Metaphor （暗喻） Unlike simile, metaphor does not contain the words “like” or “as”.

2. Rhythm（节奏）

The pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words.

Four basic stylistic devices to improve the rhythm

A. Parallelism（排比）: the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences. Examples:

①Rich and poor, intelligent and ignorant, wise and foolish, virtuous and vicious, man and woman---it is ever the same, each soul must depend wholly on itself.

(Elizabeth Cady Stanton)

* *

②There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only an American problem. (Lyndon Johnson) ③I speak as a Republican. I speak as a woman. I speak as a United Sates Senator. I speak as an American. (Margaret Chase Smith)

B. Repetition

Repeating the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences

①When you see your street, see my street. When you see your house, see my house. When you see your children, see my children. (Whitney Young, Jr.) ②We will not tire, we will not falter, we will not fail. (George W .Bush) C. Alliteration（头韵法）

Repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words. Examples:

①Peace is essential for progress, but progress is no less essential for Peace. (Liaquat Ali Khan) ②In a nation founded on the promise of human dignity, our colleges, our communities, our country should challenge hatred wherever we find it. (Hillary Rodham Clinton)

* *

D. Antithesis 对比法

The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure. Examples: ①Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. (John. F. Kennedy) ②Your success as a family, our success as a society, depends not on what happens at the White House, but on what happens inside your house. (Barbara Bush)

Using language appropriately恰当地使用语言 1. Appropriate to the occasion 2. Appropriate to the audience 3. Appropriate to the topic 4. Appropriate to the speaker

A NOTE ON INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE

 Inclusive language: language that does not stereotype, demean, or

patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors.

Four basic methods of delivering a speech

 Reading from a manuscript: A speech that is written out word for word and

read to the audience.  Reciting from memory

* *

 Speaking impromptu: a speech delivered with little or no immediate

preparation.

 Speaking extemporaneously: A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech

that is presented from a brief set of notes.

The speaker’s voice

The aspects of voice you should work to control are:

 Volume 音量  Pitch 音高  Rate 频率  Pauses 停顿

 Vocal variety 嗓音变化  Pronunciation

The speaker’s voice

 volume : the loudness or softness of the speaker’s voice.  Pitch: the highness or lowness of the speaker’s voice.  Rate: the speed at which a person speaks.

The speaker’s body 1. Personal appearance

* *

2. Movement 3. Gestures 4. Eye contact

There are four basic methods of delivering a speech, They are

 Reading from a manuscript.  Reciting from memory  Speaking impromptu  Speaking extemporaneously

* *

chapter 8 Special

Speeches on special occasions 1. Speech of introduction 介绍性演讲 2. Speech of presentation赠与演讲 3. Speeches of acceptance受奖演讲 4. Speeches of tribute 赞扬 5. Speeches of welcome 欢迎 6. Speech of farewell欢送

1. Speech of introduction

▪ a speech that introduces the main speaker to the audience.

Three purposes be achieved in the introduction

▪ Build enthusiasm for the upcoming speaker ▪ Build enthusiasm for the speaker’s topic

▪ Establish a welcoming climate that will boost the speaker’s credibility

Guidelines for speeches of introduction

▪ Be brief

▪ Make sure your remarks are completely accurate

* *

▪ Don’t take the speaker’s job

▪ Adapt your remarks to the main speaker ▪ Try to create a sense of anticipation and drama

▪ Adapt your remarks to the audience比尔 盖茨在清华大学的演讲.flv

2. Speech of presentation

▪ A speech that presents someone a gift, an award, or some other form of

public recognition

Guidelines

▪ State the purpose of the award

▪ Focus on the accomplishments of the recipient ▪ Avoid over-praising

3. Speeches of acceptance

▪ A speech that gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other form of public

recognition

▪ A speech of acceptance usually includes the following three steps.

The first step

▪ Thank those who grant you the award The second step

▪ Thank those who helped you attain the award.

* *

The third step

▪ Accept the award graciously

4. Speeches of tribute

5. A speech that honors a person, a group or an event.

6. A special form of the speech of tribute is the eulogy, a speech of praise usually

given for those who have recently died. A minister performing a funeral usually gives a speech of eulogy by praising and honoring the deceased. Speeches of tribute 我有一个梦想.flv

▪ Establish noble themes ▪ Be sincere

▪ Connect with the audience ▪ Appeal to the audience

* *

* *

chapter 9 supporting

Three kinds of supporting materials

 examples 实例  testimony 证词  statistics 统计数据

Hypothetical example

 An example that describes an imagery or fictitious situation 描述的是想象或

虚构的情形

Tips for using examples

1. Use examples to clarify your ideas说明 2. Use examples to reinforce your ideas强化

3. Use examples to personalize your ideas使思 想个人化

* *

II． Testimony

 Testimony ---quotations or paraphrases used to support a point.引用或释义

的用于支持观点的话

---Expert testimony 专家证词 ---Peer testimony 普通人证词

Tips for Using testimony

1. quote or paraphrase accurately: make sure you do not misquote someone; make sure you do not violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase; make sure you do not quote out of context

2. Use testimony from qualified sources. That is, use testimony from recognized experts or ordinary citizens with special experience on the speech topic.

3. Use testimony from unbiased sources. Be sure to use testimony from credible, competent, objective authorities.

4. Identify the people you quote or paraphrase. The usual way to identify your source is to name the person and sketch her or his qualifications before presenting the testimony

ask yourself the following two questions:

 Are the statistics representative?

* *

 Are the statistics from a reliable source? 

Tips for using statistics

1. Use statistics to quantity your ideas 2. Use statistics sparingly

3. Identify the source of your statistics 4. Explain your statistics

5. Round off complicated statistics

6. Use visual aids to clarify statistical trends

* *

* *

 Chapter 10 informative

 Informative speech: a speech designed to convey knowledge and

understanding

 To enhance the knowledge and understanding of your listeners--- to give

them information they did not have before  Convey clearly accurately interestingly

Organizational methods

 Chronological order 编年顺序  Spatial order 空间顺序  Topical order 主题顺序  Causal order

 Problem-solution order

Other methods of speech organization

 Causal order: A show a cause-effect relationship. method of speech

organization in which the main points

 Problem-solution order: A method of speech organization in which the

first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main

* *

point presents a solution to the problem.  (Problem-cause-solution order)

Speeches about process

 Process: A systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result or

product.

 Speeches of process explain how something is made, how something is

done, or how something works.

3. Speeches about events

 Event: Anything that happens or is regarded as happening.  chronological order----to recount the history of an event,  causal order ----to explain the causes and effects

4. Speech about concepts

 Concept: A belief, theory, idea, notion, principle, or the like.

 Speeches about concepts are usually organized in topical order. One

common approach is to list the main features or aspects of your concept.

Guidelines for informative speaking

Don’t overestimate what the audience knows.

* Lead your audience step by step and explain everything thoroughly.

* *

2. Relate the subject directly to the audience

* What is fascinating to the speaker may not be fascinating to everybody. * Get your listeners involved

3. Don’t be too technical

* Simple, clear language is needed. 4. Avoid abstractions

One way to avoid abstractions is through description (a statement that depicts a person, event, idea, or the like with clarity and vividness)

Another way to escape abstraction is with comparisons (A statement of the similarities among two or more people, events, ideas, etc.) 5. Personalize your ideas

* *

* *

chapter11 persuasive

I. Persuasive speeches on questions of fact

 Questions of fact ---A question about the truth or falsity of an assertion.  We do not know enough information to know what it is Will the economy be better or worse next year? Will another earthquake strike California before the year 2010?

 The facts are murky or inclusive

What will happen next in the Middle East?

Is sexual orientation genetically determined?

Speeches On questions of fact are usually organized topically II. Persuasive speeches on questions of value

 Questions of value? ---A question about the worth, rightness, morality, and

so forth of an idea or action.

 What is the best movie of all time? Is the cloning of human beings morally

justifiable? What are the ethical responsibilities of journalists?  Matter of fact, value judgments 

* *

Speeches on questions of value are mostly organized topically

 Your first main point is to establish the standards for your value judgment.

树立价值判断的标准

 Your second main point is to apply those standards to the subject.

III. Persuasive speeches on questions of policy

Questions of policy ---A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken.是否采取行动 What to do during spring vocation? Which strategy to use in selling a product?

How to maintain economic growth and protect the enviroment ?

 They are to decide whether something should or should not be done.

2. Organizing speeches on Questions of policy

Problem-solution order

Problem-cause-solution order Comparative Advantage order D. Monroe’s motivated sequence

D. Monroe’s motivated sequence 门罗促动顺序

 A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action.

* *

 The five steps of the motivated sequence are: 1. attention 2. need 3. satisfaction 4. visualization （形象化） 5. action

Part 2: Methods of persuasion

Listeners will be persuaded by a speaker from one or more of four reasons: I. credibility.

II. evidence. III. reasoning. IV. emotions

I. Building credibility

 Factors of credibility:

A. Competence---how an audience regards a speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject.

B. Character---how an audience regards a speaker’s sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience.

* *

2. Establishing common ground with your audience

 Creating common ground---a technique in which a speaker connects

himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience.

3. Deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction II. Using evidence Tips for using evidence 1. Use specific evidence. 2. Use novel evidence.

3. Use evidence from credible sources 4. Make clear the point of your evidence.

III. Reasoning

 Reasoning---the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.  Four types of reasoning:

1. Reasoning from specific instances 2. Reasoning from principle 3. Causal reasoning 4. Analogical reasoning

Guidelines for reasoning from specific instances

A. Avoid generalizing too hastily, make sure your sample of specific instances is large enough to justify your conclusion.

* *

B. Be careful with your wording. If your evidence does not justify a conclusion, qualify your argument.

C. Reinforce your argument with statistics and testimony 2. Reasoning from principle

 ---Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.

For instance:

 All people are mortal.  Socrates is a person.  Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

3. Causal reasoning

---Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects.

 There is a patch of ice on the sidewalk. You slip, fall, and break your arm. You reason as follows: “Because that patch of ice was there, I fell and broke my arm.” or  “If the patch of ice hadn’t been there, I wouldn’t have fallen and broken my arm.”  4. Analogical reasoning （类比推理）

---Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second. * *

 If you are good at racquetball, you’ll be great at Ping-Pang.  In Great Britain the general election campaign fro Prime Minister lasts less than three weeks. Surely we can do the same with the U.S presidential election.

IV. Appealing to emotions

 Emotional appeals are intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty,

afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent, or the like. These are often appropriate reactions when the question is one of value or policy. 

Guidelines for generating emotional appeal

 1. Use emotional language 2. Develop vivid example

3. Speak with sincerity and conviction